Conductivity of Gases. A gas in its normal state is one of the best insulators known. This may be shown by mounting a gold leaf electroscope inside an enclosed space, and allowing only a small rod carrying a polished knob, for the purpose of charging, to project out. If the support carrying the electro- scope is well insulated from the container, the electroscope will remain charged for a long time, showing that the air or what- ever gas surrounds the electroscope is a poor conductor of electricity. If, however, X-rays are allowed to shine through the enclosure, or if a small quantity of some radio-active substance such as thorium or radium is placed inside it, or again if the products of combustion of a flame are drawn through it, it is then found that the gold leaves collapse quite rapidly, indicating that the gas has lost its insulating properties. That the leakage has taken place through the air and not across the insulating support may be shown by using a second chamber connected with the electrometer enclosure by a glass tube, and introducing the X-rays, the radio active substance or other agent into this, and then drawing the air thus acted upon into the first chamber. The same effects are observed. However, if glass wool is introduced in the connecting tube, or if the air is passed between two insulated plates connected to a battery before entering the electrometer chamber, it is found that its insulating properties are restored. Experiments of this sort as well as many others of an entirely different nature have shown that the conduction of electricity through gases is due to carriers of electricity, and that the carriers are of two distinct types, positive and negative; the former are similar to the carriers of electricity through solutions and are called positive ions, while the latter are either negative ions or electrons. 㰀⼀戀爀㸀㰀戀爀㸀匀琀爀甀挀琀甀爀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 䄀琀漀洀 吀漀 攀砀瀀氀愀椀渀 琀栀攀 瀀栀攀渀漀洀攀渀愀 漀昀 琀栀攀 挀漀渀搀甀挀琀椀瘀椀琀礀 漀昀 最愀猀攀猀Ⰰ 椀琀 椀猀 渀攀挀攀猀猀愀爀礀 昀椀爀猀琀 琀漀 洀愀欀攀 愀 戀爀椀攀昀 猀琀愀琀攀洀攀渀琀 挀漀渀挀攀爀渀椀渀最 琀栀攀 猀琀爀甀挀琀甀爀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 愀琀漀洀⸀ 圀栀椀氀攀 漀甀爀 欀渀漀眀氀攀搀最攀 椀猀 昀愀爀 昀爀漀洀 挀漀洀瀀氀攀琀攀Ⰰ 椀琀 椀猀 眀攀氀氀 攀猀琀愀戀氀椀猀栀攀搀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀 愀琀漀洀 挀漀渀猀椀猀琀猀 漀昀 愀 渀甀挀氀攀甀猀 漀昀 瀀漀猀椀琀椀瘀攀 攀氀攀挀琀爀椀挀椀琀礀Ⰰ 愀戀漀甀琀 眀栀椀挀栀 爀攀瘀漀氀瘀攀 椀渀 挀氀漀猀攀搀 漀爀戀椀琀猀Ⰰ 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀渀猀Ⰰ 椀渀 洀甀挀栀 琀栀攀 猀愀洀攀 眀愀礀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀 瀀氀愀渀攀琀猀 爀攀瘀漀氀瘀攀 愀戀漀甀琀 琀栀攀 猀甀渀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀 爀攀氀愀琀椀瘀攀 搀椀洀攀渀猀椀漀渀猀 漀昀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀渀猀Ⰰ 渀甀挀氀攀甀猀 愀渀搀 漀爀戀椀琀猀 愀爀攀 愀戀漀甀琀 琀栀攀 猀愀洀攀 愀猀 椀渀 琀栀攀 猀漀氀愀爀 猀礀猀琀攀洀⸀ 吀栀攀 渀甀洀戀攀爀 漀昀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀渀猀 瀀爀攀猀攀渀琀 椀渀 愀 最椀瘀攀渀 愀琀漀洀 栀愀猀 戀攀攀渀 攀猀琀椀洀愀琀攀搀 椀渀 瘀愀爀椀漀甀猀 眀愀礀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 眀栀椀氀攀 琀栀攀 爀攀猀甀氀琀猀 愀爀攀 渀漀琀 攀渀琀椀爀攀氀礀 椀渀 愀最爀攀攀洀攀渀琀Ⰰ 椀琀 椀猀 瀀爀漀戀愀戀氀攀 琀栀愀琀 椀琀 椀猀 琀栀攀 猀愀洀攀 愀猀 琀栀攀 愀琀漀洀椀挀 渀甀洀戀攀爀Ⰰ 琀栀愀琀 椀猀Ⰰ 椀琀猀 渀甀洀戀攀爀 椀渀 琀栀攀 氀椀猀琀 漀昀 攀氀攀洀攀渀琀猀 愀爀爀愀渀最攀搀 椀渀 漀爀搀攀爀 漀昀 愀猀挀攀渀搀椀渀最 愀琀漀洀椀挀 眀攀椀最栀琀猀⸀ 吀栀攀 愀琀漀洀椀挀 渀甀洀戀攀爀Ⰰ 攀砀挀攀瀀琀 昀漀爀 琀栀攀 挀愀猀攀 漀昀 栀礀搀爀漀最攀渀Ⰰ 椀猀 愀瀀瀀爀漀砀椀洀愀琀攀氀礀 栀愀氀昀 椀琀猀 愀琀漀洀椀挀 眀攀椀最栀琀⸀ 匀椀渀挀攀 琀栀攀 愀琀漀洀 愀猀 愀 眀栀漀氀攀 椀猀 渀攀甀琀爀愀氀Ⰰ 椀琀 椀猀 渀攀挀攀猀猀愀爀礀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀 瀀漀猀椀琀椀瘀攀 渀甀挀氀攀甀猀 猀栀漀甀氀搀 栀愀瘀攀 愀 挀栀愀爀最攀 攀焀甀愀氀 琀漀 渀攀Ⰰ 眀栀攀爀攀 攀 椀猀 琀栀攀 挀栀愀爀最攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀渀 愀渀搀 渀 琀栀攀 渀甀洀戀攀爀 漀昀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀渀猀⸀ 吀栀攀 猀栀愀瀀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 漀爀戀椀琀猀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 氀愀眀 漀昀 昀漀爀挀攀 戀攀琀眀攀攀渀 渀甀挀氀攀甀猀 愀渀搀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀渀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 攀瘀攀渀 琀栀攀 挀漀渀搀椀琀椀漀渀猀 漀昀 猀琀愀戀椀氀椀琀礀 愀爀攀 瀀爀漀戀氀攀洀猀 眀栀椀挀栀 栀愀瘀攀 渀漀琀 礀攀琀 戀攀攀渀 猀漀氀瘀攀搀Ⰰ 戀甀琀 愀爀攀 渀漀眀 戀攀椀渀最 愀琀琀愀挀欀攀搀 昀爀漀洀 洀愀渀礀 愀渀最氀攀猀⸀ 圀栀攀渀 攀砀琀攀爀渀愀氀 愀最攀渀挀椀攀猀 猀甀挀栀 愀猀 堀ⴀ爀愀礀猀Ⰰ 甀氀琀爀愀 瘀椀漀氀攀琀 氀椀最栀琀Ⰰ 爀愀搀椀愀琀椀漀渀猀 昀爀漀洀 爀愀搀椀漀 愀挀琀椀瘀攀 洀愀琀攀爀椀愀氀猀Ⰰ 攀琀挀⸀Ⰰ 愀挀琀 甀瀀漀渀 愀 最愀猀Ⰰ 椀琀 椀猀 昀漀甀渀搀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀 愀琀漀洀椀挀 猀琀爀甀挀琀甀爀攀 椀猀 戀爀漀欀攀渀 甀瀀⸀ 伀渀攀 漀爀 洀漀爀攀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀渀猀 洀愀礀 戀攀 琀漀爀渀 愀眀愀礀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀攀 猀礀猀琀攀洀 氀攀愀瘀椀渀最 椀琀 眀椀琀栀 愀渀 攀砀挀攀猀猀 漀昀 瀀漀猀椀琀椀瘀攀 攀氀攀挀琀爀椀挀椀琀礀⸀ 圀攀 琀栀甀猀 栀愀瘀攀 瀀爀攀猀攀渀琀 椀渀 琀栀攀 最愀猀 瀀漀猀椀琀椀瘀攀 椀漀渀猀 愀渀搀 渀攀最愀琀椀瘀攀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀渀猀⸀ 吀栀攀 最愀猀 椀猀 琀栀攀渀 猀愀椀搀 琀漀 戀攀 椀漀渀椀稀攀搀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 洀攀愀渀猀 戀礀 眀栀椀挀栀 琀栀椀猀 挀漀渀搀椀琀椀漀渀 椀猀 戀爀漀甀最栀琀 愀戀漀甀琀 椀猀 挀愀氀氀攀搀 琀栀攀 ∀椀漀渀椀稀椀渀最 愀最攀渀琀⸀∀ 䤀昀 琀眀漀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀搀攀猀 愀爀攀 椀渀琀爀漀搀甀挀攀搀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 愀 搀椀昀昀攀爀攀渀挀攀 漀昀 瀀漀琀攀渀琀椀愀氀 椀猀 洀愀椀渀琀愀椀渀攀搀 戀攀琀眀攀攀渀 琀栀攀洀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀渀猀 洀漀瘀攀 琀漀 琀栀攀 瀀漀猀椀琀椀瘀攀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀搀攀Ⰰ 愀渀搀Ⰰ 攀渀琀攀爀椀渀最 椀琀Ⰰ 瀀愀猀猀 漀渀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 琀栀攀 攀砀琀攀爀渀愀氀 洀攀琀愀氀氀椀挀 挀椀爀挀甀椀琀⸀ 吀栀攀 瀀漀猀椀琀椀瘀攀 椀漀渀猀Ⰰ 漀渀 琀栀攀 漀琀栀攀爀 栀愀渀搀Ⰰ 洀漀瘀攀 琀漀 琀栀攀 渀攀最愀琀椀瘀攀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀搀攀 愀渀搀 爀攀挀攀椀瘀攀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀渀猀 昀爀漀洀 椀琀Ⰰ 琀栀甀猀 戀攀挀漀洀椀渀最 愀最愀椀渀 渀攀甀琀爀愀氀 洀漀氀攀挀甀氀攀猀⸀ 唀渀氀攀猀猀 愀渀 椀漀渀椀稀椀渀最 愀最攀渀琀 愀挀琀猀 挀漀渀琀椀渀甀漀甀猀氀礀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 挀甀爀爀攀渀琀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 琀栀攀 挀椀爀挀甀椀琀 眀椀氀氀 瀀攀爀猀椀猀琀 漀渀氀礀 甀渀琀椀氀 琀栀攀 椀漀渀猀 愀渀搀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀渀猀 栀愀瘀攀 戀攀攀渀 爀攀洀漀瘀攀搀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀攀 最愀猀
The ionization Current Suppose now that an ionizing agent is acting continuously upon a gas in an ionization chamber as an arrangement such as that just described is called. At first it might be supposed that if the agent acts long enough all of the atoms would be ionized. This, however, is not the case; for, due to their undirected heat motion, ions and electrons collide, and recombine. When the rate of recombination is equal to that of ionization, a steady state is reached where only a definite fraction, usually a very small number, of the total number of molecules are in the ionized state. If the difference of potential between the plates is varied, and the current between them is measured and plotted as a function of voltage, it is found that the current increases with the voltage almost linearly at first, in accordance with Ohm's law; but for higher voltages, the curve is concave downward and when a certain voltage has been reached, no further increase in current can be obtained, unless the voltage is raised to very large values. The constancy of the current is due to the fact that all of the ions and electrons produced are swept out by the field. This current is spoken of as the "saturation current," from the similarity between the shape of this curve and the magnetization curve for iron. The voltage at which the horizontal part of the curve begins is called the "saturation voltage." If the distance between the electrodes is increased, it might, by analogy with metallic conductors, be thought that the saturation current would be reduced because of the increased path the ions and electrons must travel. It is found, however, that the cur- rent is actually increased. This is because there is a larger number of gas molecules subjected to the action of the ionizing agent, and hence more carriers are produced. Again, it is found that if the pressure of the gas is increased, the ionization current is increased. Both of these facts show that the saturation cur- rent through a gas is proportional to the mass of the gas between the electrodes.㰀⼀戀爀㸀㰀戀爀㸀䤀漀渀椀稀愀琀椀漀渀 戀礀 䌀漀氀氀椀猀椀漀渀⸀ 䤀昀 琀栀攀 瘀漀氀琀愀最攀 戀攀琀眀攀攀渀 琀栀攀 瀀氀愀琀攀猀 漀昀 琀栀攀 椀漀渀椀稀愀琀椀漀渀 挀栀愀洀戀攀爀 椀猀 椀渀挀爀攀愀猀攀搀 琀漀 猀甀昀昀椀挀椀攀渀琀氀礀 氀愀爀最攀 瘀愀氀甀攀猀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 猀愀琀甀爀愀琀椀漀渀 挀甀爀爀攀渀琀 搀漀攀猀 渀漀琀 爀攀洀愀椀渀 挀漀渀猀琀愀渀琀 椀渀搀攀昀椀渀椀琀攀氀礀Ⰰ 昀漀爀 昀椀攀氀搀猀 洀愀礀 戀攀 爀攀愀挀栀攀搀 愀琀 眀栀椀挀栀 琀栀攀 挀甀爀爀攀渀琀 愀最愀椀渀 戀攀最椀渀猀 琀漀 爀椀猀攀Ⰰ 猀氀漀眀氀礀 愀琀 昀椀爀猀琀 愀渀搀 琀栀攀渀 瘀攀爀礀 爀愀瀀椀搀氀礀Ⰰ 昀椀渀愀氀氀礀 爀攀猀甀氀琀椀渀最 椀渀 愀 搀椀猀爀甀瀀琀椀瘀攀 猀瀀愀爀欀 愀挀挀漀洀瀀愀渀椀攀搀 戀礀 琀栀攀 瀀愀猀猀愀最攀 漀昀 愀 挀甀爀爀攀渀琀 漀昀 挀漀渀猀椀搀攀爀愀戀氀攀 洀愀最渀椀琀甀搀攀⸀ 吀栀攀 昀椀攀氀搀 爀攀焀甀椀爀攀搀 昀漀爀 琀栀椀猀 椀渀挀爀攀愀猀攀搀 挀甀爀爀攀渀琀 搀攀瀀攀渀搀猀 甀瀀漀渀 琀栀攀 搀椀猀琀愀渀挀攀 戀攀琀眀攀攀渀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀搀攀猀Ⰰ 琀栀攀椀爀 猀椀稀攀 愀渀搀 猀栀愀瀀攀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 渀愀琀甀爀攀 愀渀搀 瀀爀攀猀猀甀爀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 最愀猀⸀ 䘀漀爀 愀椀爀 愀琀 愀琀洀漀猀瀀栀攀爀椀挀 瀀爀攀猀猀甀爀攀 愀渀搀 猀瀀栀攀爀椀挀愀氀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀搀攀猀 漀昀 洀漀搀攀爀愀琀攀 搀椀洀攀渀猀椀漀渀猀Ⰰ 攀⸀最⸀Ⰰ 挀洀⸀ 搀椀愀洀攀琀攀爀Ⰰ 挀攀渀琀椀洀攀琀攀爀⸀ 䤀琀 椀猀 琀栀攀 漀爀搀攀爀 漀昀 Ⰰ 嘀漀氀琀猀 瀀攀爀 挀攀渀琀椀洀攀琀攀爀 䤀琀 搀椀洀椀渀椀猀栀攀猀Ⰰ 栀漀眀攀瘀攀爀Ⰰ 愀猀 琀栀攀 瀀爀攀猀猀甀爀攀 椀猀 爀攀搀甀挀攀搀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 椀猀 洀漀猀琀 挀漀渀瘀攀渀椀攀渀琀氀礀 猀琀甀搀椀攀搀 愀琀 瀀爀攀猀猀甀爀攀猀 戀攀氀漀眀 洀椀氀氀椀洀攀琀攀爀猀 漀昀 洀攀爀挀甀爀礀⸀ 吀栀椀猀 椀渀挀爀攀愀猀攀 椀渀 挀甀爀爀攀渀琀 椀猀 搀甀攀 琀漀 琀栀攀 昀愀挀琀 琀栀愀琀 椀漀渀猀 愀爀攀 瀀爀漀搀甀挀攀搀 戀礀 挀漀氀氀椀猀椀漀渀猀 琀愀欀椀渀最 瀀氀愀挀攀 戀攀琀眀攀攀渀 渀攀甀琀爀愀氀 洀漀氀攀挀甀氀攀猀 愀渀搀 椀漀渀猀 愀猀 眀攀氀氀 愀猀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀渀猀 愀氀爀攀愀搀礀 攀砀椀猀琀椀渀最 椀渀 琀栀攀 最愀猀⸀ 吀栀攀 洀攀挀栀愀渀椀猀洀 漀昀 琀栀椀猀 瀀爀漀挀攀猀猀 椀猀 猀漀洀攀眀栀愀琀 漀戀猀挀甀爀攀Ⰰ 戀甀琀 椀琀 椀猀 挀氀攀愀爀 琀栀愀琀 愀 搀攀昀椀渀椀琀攀 愀洀漀甀渀琀 漀昀 攀渀攀爀最礀 椀猀 爀攀焀甀椀爀攀搀 琀漀 搀椀猀爀甀瀀琀 愀 渀攀甀琀爀愀氀 愀琀漀洀⸀ 吀栀攀 欀椀渀攀琀椀挀 攀渀攀爀最礀 漀昀 洀漀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 琀栀攀 椀漀渀猀 愀渀搀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀渀猀 搀攀瀀攀渀搀猀 甀瀀漀渀 栀漀眀 昀愀爀 琀栀攀礀 栀愀瘀攀 洀漀瘀攀搀 甀渀搀攀爀 琀栀攀 愀挀挀攀氀攀爀愀琀椀渀最 昀椀攀氀搀 戀攀昀漀爀攀 戀攀椀渀最 猀琀漀瀀瀀攀搀 椀渀 琀栀攀 猀愀洀攀 眀愀礀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀 攀渀攀爀最礀 漀昀 洀漀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 愀 昀爀攀攀氀礀 昀愀氀氀椀渀最 戀漀搀礀 搀攀瀀攀渀搀猀 甀瀀漀渀 琀栀攀 搀椀猀琀愀渀挀攀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 眀栀椀挀栀 椀琀 栀愀猀 昀愀氀氀攀渀 戀攀昀漀爀攀 戀攀椀渀最 愀爀爀攀猀琀攀搀⸀ 吀栀甀猀Ⰰ 愀猀 琀栀攀 瀀爀攀猀猀甀爀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 最愀猀 椀猀 爀攀搀甀挀攀搀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 愀瘀攀爀愀最攀 氀攀渀最琀栀 漀昀 昀爀攀攀 琀爀愀瘀攀氀 椀猀 最爀攀愀琀攀爀 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 愀挀焀甀椀爀攀搀 攀渀攀爀最礀 愀瘀愀椀氀愀戀氀攀 昀漀爀 椀漀渀椀稀椀渀最 瀀甀爀瀀漀猀攀猀 椀猀 椀渀挀爀攀愀猀攀搀⸀ 吀栀攀 挀漀渀搀甀挀琀椀瘀椀琀礀 漀昀 愀 最愀猀 琀栀攀爀攀昀漀爀攀 椀渀挀爀攀愀猀攀猀 愀猀 琀栀攀 瀀爀攀猀猀甀爀攀 椀猀 爀攀搀甀挀攀搀⸀ 匀椀渀挀攀Ⰰ 栀漀眀攀瘀攀爀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 挀漀渀搀甀挀琀椀瘀椀琀礀 搀攀瀀攀渀搀猀 甀瀀漀渀 挀愀爀爀椀攀爀猀 眀栀椀挀栀 挀漀洀攀 漀爀椀最椀渀愀氀氀礀 昀爀漀洀 渀攀甀琀爀愀氀 洀漀氀攀挀甀氀攀猀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 挀漀渀搀甀挀琀椀瘀椀琀礀 挀愀渀 渀漀琀 椀渀挀爀攀愀猀攀 椀渀搀攀昀椀渀椀琀攀氀礀 眀椀琀栀 搀攀挀爀攀愀猀攀 漀昀 瀀爀攀猀猀甀爀攀Ⰰ 昀漀爀 琀栀攀 攀昀昀攀挀琀 漀昀 琀栀攀 搀攀挀爀攀愀猀攀搀 愀瘀愀椀氀愀戀氀攀 猀甀瀀瀀氀礀 眀椀氀氀 攀瘀攀渀琀甀愀氀氀礀 戀攀 昀攀氀琀⸀ 䄀渀 漀瀀琀椀洀甀洀 瀀爀攀猀猀甀爀攀 琀栀攀爀攀昀漀爀攀 攀砀椀猀琀猀 愀琀 眀栀椀挀栀 琀栀攀 椀渀挀爀攀愀猀攀搀 爀愀渀最攀 昀漀爀 愀挀挀攀氀攀爀愀琀椀漀渀 椀猀 樀甀猀琀 戀愀氀愀渀挀攀搀 戀礀 琀栀攀 搀攀挀爀攀愀猀攀搀 猀甀瀀瀀氀礀 漀昀 洀漀氀攀挀甀氀攀猀⸀ 䘀漀爀 愀椀爀Ⰰ 琀栀椀猀 瀀爀攀猀猀甀爀攀 椀猀 漀昀 琀栀攀 漀爀搀攀爀 漀昀 愀 昀攀眀 琀攀渀琀栀猀 漀昀 愀 洀椀氀氀椀洀攀琀攀爀 漀昀 洀攀爀挀甀爀礀⸀ 䄀 昀甀爀琀栀攀爀 搀攀挀爀攀愀猀攀 椀渀 琀栀攀 瀀爀攀猀猀甀爀攀 爀攀猀甀氀琀猀 椀渀 愀 爀愀瀀椀搀 椀渀挀爀攀愀猀攀 椀渀 琀栀攀 爀攀猀椀猀琀愀渀挀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 最愀猀⸀ 䤀昀 愀 瀀攀爀昀攀挀琀 瘀愀挀甀甀洀 挀漀甀氀搀 戀攀 漀戀琀愀椀渀攀搀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 昀爀攀攀 猀瀀愀挀攀 戀攀琀眀攀攀渀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀搀攀猀 眀漀甀氀搀 戀攀 愀 瀀攀爀昀攀挀琀 椀渀猀甀氀愀琀漀爀⸀ 圀栀椀氀攀 琀栀椀猀 椀猀Ⰰ 漀昀 挀漀甀爀猀攀Ⰰ 椀洀瀀漀猀猀椀戀氀攀Ⰰ 椀琀 椀猀Ⰰ 渀攀瘀攀爀琀栀攀氀攀猀猀Ⰰ 攀愀猀礀 眀椀琀栀 洀漀搀攀爀渀 洀攀琀栀漀搀猀 漀昀 攀瘀愀挀甀愀琀椀漀渀 琀漀 漀戀琀愀椀渀 瀀爀攀猀猀甀爀攀猀 猀漀 氀漀眀 琀栀愀琀 渀漀 愀瀀瀀爀攀挀椀愀戀氀攀 搀椀猀挀栀愀爀最攀 挀愀渀 戀攀 搀攀琀攀挀琀攀搀 眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀 栀椀最栀攀猀琀 昀椀攀氀搀猀 愀瘀愀椀氀愀戀氀攀 椀渀 琀栀攀 氀愀戀漀爀愀琀漀爀礀⸀
㰀⼀瀀㸀
A circuit diagram below showing an experimental set up to observe the visible electric and magnetic characteristics of gases brought to high temperature by electric current passing through the gas a low pressures.
Above is a drawing of a discharge tube running on a steady direct current (d.c.)showing the curious bright and dark band and its cathode dark spot.. 㰀⼀戀爀㸀㰀戀爀㸀䤀昀 琀栀攀 琀甀戀攀 椀猀 爀甀渀 漀渀 㘀 挀礀挀氀攀猀 瀀攀爀 猀攀挀漀渀搀 愀氀琀攀爀渀愀琀椀渀最 挀甀爀爀攀渀琀 琀栀攀 瀀漀氀愀爀椀琀椀攀猀 漀昀 琀栀攀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀搀攀猀 挀栀愀渀最攀 昀爀漀洀 ⬀ 琀漀 ⴀ 㘀 琀椀洀攀猀 愀 猀攀挀漀渀搀 最椀瘀椀渀最 琀眀漀 搀椀猀挀栀愀爀最攀 挀漀氀甀洀渀猀 眀栀椀挀栀 漀瘀攀爀 氀愀瀀 攀愀挀栀 漀琀栀攀爀 琀栀甀猀 戀氀攀渀搀椀渀最⸀ 漀甀琀 琀漀 猀漀洀攀 攀砀琀攀渀琀 琀栀攀 搀愀爀欀 挀愀琀栀漀搀攀 昀攀愀琀甀爀攀⸀ 匀椀渀挀攀 琀栀椀猀 挀栀愀渀最攀 最漀攀猀 戀愀挀欀 愀渀搀 昀漀爀琀栀 㘀 琀椀洀攀猀 愀 猀攀挀漀渀搀 琀栀攀 攀礀攀 猀攀攀猀 戀漀琀栀 愀琀 琀栀攀 猀愀洀攀 琀椀洀攀Ⰰ 椀⸀攀⸀ 琀栀攀礀✀爀攀 戀氀攀渀搀 琀漀最攀琀栀攀爀⸀
Using a magnet with its magnetic field perpendicular to the arc current flow separates the two columns so that one can see each arc column with its cathode dark space
Joseph John Thomson was born in Cheetham Hill, a suburb of Manchester on December 18, 1856. He enrolled at Owens College, Manchester, in 1870, and in 1876 entered Trinity College, Cambridge as a minor scholar. He became a Fellow of Trinity College in 1880, when he was Second Wrangler and Second Smith's Prizeman, and he remained a member of the College for the rest of his life, becoming Lecturer in 1883 and Master in 1918. 䠀攀 眀愀猀 䌀愀瘀攀渀搀椀猀栀 倀爀漀昀攀猀猀漀爀 漀昀 䔀砀瀀攀爀椀洀攀渀琀愀氀 倀栀礀猀椀挀猀 愀琀 䌀愀洀戀爀椀搀最攀Ⰰ 眀栀攀爀攀 栀攀 猀甀挀挀攀攀搀攀搀 䰀漀爀搀 刀愀礀氀攀椀最栀Ⰰ 昀爀漀洀 㠀㠀㐀 琀漀 㤀㠀 愀渀搀 䠀漀渀漀爀愀爀礀 倀爀漀昀攀猀猀漀爀 漀昀 倀栀礀猀椀挀猀Ⰰ 䌀愀洀戀爀椀搀最攀 愀渀搀 刀漀礀愀氀 䤀渀猀琀椀琀甀琀椀漀渀Ⰰ 䰀漀渀搀漀渀⸀ 㰀栀㐀㸀吀栀漀洀猀漀渀✀猀 攀愀爀氀礀 椀渀琀攀爀攀猀琀 椀渀 愀琀漀洀椀挀 猀琀爀甀挀琀甀爀攀 眀愀猀 爀攀昀氀攀挀琀攀搀 椀渀 栀椀猀 吀爀攀愀琀椀猀攀 漀渀 琀栀攀 䴀漀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 嘀漀爀琀攀砀 刀椀渀最猀 眀栀椀挀栀 眀漀渀 栀椀洀 琀栀攀 䄀搀愀洀猀 倀爀椀稀攀 椀渀 㠀㠀㐀⸀ 䠀椀猀 䄀瀀瀀氀椀挀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 䐀礀渀愀洀椀挀猀 琀漀 倀栀礀猀椀挀猀 愀渀搀 䌀栀攀洀椀猀琀爀礀 愀瀀瀀攀愀爀攀搀 椀渀 㠀㠀㘀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 椀渀 㠀㤀㈀ 栀攀 栀愀搀 栀椀猀 一漀琀攀猀 漀渀 刀攀挀攀渀琀 刀攀猀攀愀爀挀栀攀猀 椀渀 䔀氀攀挀琀爀椀挀椀琀礀 愀渀搀 䴀愀最渀攀琀椀猀洀 瀀甀戀氀椀猀栀攀搀⸀ 吀栀椀猀 氀愀琀琀攀爀 眀漀爀欀 挀漀瘀攀爀攀搀 爀攀猀甀氀琀猀 漀戀琀愀椀渀攀搀 猀甀戀猀攀焀甀攀渀琀 琀漀 琀栀攀 愀瀀瀀攀愀爀愀渀挀攀 漀昀 䨀愀洀攀猀 䌀氀攀爀欀 䴀愀砀眀攀氀氀✀猀 昀愀洀漀甀猀 ∀吀爀攀愀琀椀猀攀∀ 愀渀搀 椀琀 椀猀 漀昀琀攀渀 爀攀昀攀爀爀攀搀 琀漀 愀猀 ∀琀栀攀 琀栀椀爀搀 瘀漀氀甀洀攀 漀昀 䴀愀砀眀攀氀氀∀⸀ 吀栀漀洀猀漀渀 挀漀ⴀ漀瀀攀爀愀琀攀搀 眀椀琀栀 倀爀漀昀攀猀猀漀爀 䨀⸀ 䠀⸀ 倀漀礀渀琀椀渀最 椀渀 愀 昀漀甀爀ⴀ瘀漀氀甀洀攀 琀攀砀琀戀漀漀欀 漀昀 瀀栀礀猀椀挀猀Ⰰ 倀爀漀瀀攀爀琀椀攀猀 漀昀 䴀愀琀琀攀爀 愀渀搀 椀渀 㠀㤀㔀 栀攀 瀀爀漀搀甀挀攀搀 䔀氀攀洀攀渀琀猀 漀昀 琀栀攀 䴀愀琀栀攀洀愀琀椀挀愀氀 吀栀攀漀爀礀 漀昀 䔀氀攀挀琀爀椀挀椀琀礀 愀渀搀 䴀愀最渀攀琀椀猀洀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 㔀琀栀 攀搀椀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 眀栀椀挀栀 愀瀀瀀攀愀爀攀搀 椀渀 㤀㈀⸀ 㰀⼀栀㐀㸀㰀栀㐀⸀䤀渀 㠀㤀㘀Ⰰ 吀栀漀洀猀漀渀 瘀椀猀椀琀攀搀 䄀洀攀爀椀挀愀 琀漀 最椀瘀攀 愀 挀漀甀爀猀攀 漀昀 昀漀甀爀 氀攀挀琀甀爀攀猀Ⰰ 眀栀椀挀栀 猀甀洀洀愀爀椀猀攀搀 栀椀猀 挀甀爀爀攀渀琀 爀攀猀攀愀爀挀栀攀猀Ⰰ 愀琀 倀爀椀渀挀攀琀漀渀⸀ 吀栀攀猀攀 氀攀挀琀甀爀攀猀 眀攀爀攀 猀甀戀猀攀焀甀攀渀琀氀礀 瀀甀戀氀椀猀栀攀搀 愀猀 䐀椀猀挀栀愀爀最攀 漀昀 䔀氀攀挀琀爀椀挀椀琀礀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 䜀愀猀攀猀 ⠀㠀㤀㜀⤀⸀ 伀渀 栀椀猀 爀攀琀甀爀渀 昀爀漀洀 䄀洀攀爀椀挀愀Ⰰ 栀攀 愀挀栀椀攀瘀攀搀 琀栀攀 洀漀猀琀 戀爀椀氀氀椀愀渀琀 眀漀爀欀 漀昀 栀椀猀 氀椀昀攀 ⴀ 愀渀 漀爀椀最椀渀愀氀 猀琀甀搀礀 漀昀 挀愀琀栀漀搀攀 爀愀礀猀 挀甀氀洀椀渀愀琀椀渀最 椀渀 琀栀攀 搀椀猀挀漀瘀攀爀礀 漀昀 琀栀攀 攀氀攀挀琀爀漀渀Ⰰ 眀栀椀挀栀 眀愀猀 愀渀渀漀甀渀挀攀搀 搀甀爀椀渀最 琀栀攀 挀漀甀爀猀攀 漀昀 栀椀猀 攀瘀攀渀椀渀最 氀攀挀琀甀爀攀 琀漀 琀栀攀 刀漀礀愀氀 䤀渀猀琀椀琀甀琀椀漀渀 漀渀 䘀爀椀搀愀礀Ⰰ 䄀瀀爀椀氀 ㌀ Ⰰ 㠀㤀㜀⸀ 䠀椀猀 戀漀漀欀Ⰰ 䌀漀渀搀甀挀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 䔀氀攀挀琀爀椀挀椀琀礀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 䜀愀猀攀猀Ⰰ 瀀甀戀氀椀猀栀攀搀 椀渀 㤀 ㌀ 眀愀猀 搀攀猀挀爀椀戀攀搀 戀礀 䰀漀爀搀 刀愀礀氀攀椀最栀 愀猀 愀 爀攀瘀椀攀眀 漀昀 ∀吀栀漀洀猀漀渀✀猀 最爀攀愀琀 搀愀礀猀 愀琀 琀栀攀 䌀愀瘀攀渀搀椀猀栀 䰀愀戀漀爀愀琀漀爀礀∀⸀ 䄀 氀愀琀攀爀 攀搀椀琀椀漀渀Ⰰ 眀爀椀琀琀攀渀 椀渀 挀漀氀氀愀戀漀爀愀琀椀漀渀 眀椀琀栀 栀椀猀 猀漀渀Ⰰ 䜀攀漀爀最攀Ⰰ 愀瀀瀀攀愀爀攀搀 椀渀 琀眀漀 瘀漀氀甀洀攀猀 ⠀㤀㈀㠀 愀渀搀 㤀㌀㌀⤀⸀ 㰀⼀栀㐀㸀㰀栀㐀㸀吀栀漀洀猀漀渀 爀攀琀甀爀渀攀搀 琀漀 䄀洀攀爀椀挀愀 椀渀 㤀 㐀 琀漀 搀攀氀椀瘀攀爀 猀椀砀 氀攀挀琀甀爀攀猀 漀渀 攀氀攀挀琀爀椀挀椀琀礀 愀渀搀 洀愀琀琀攀爀 愀琀 夀愀氀攀 唀渀椀瘀攀爀猀椀琀礀⸀ 吀栀攀礀 挀漀渀琀愀椀渀攀搀 猀漀洀攀 椀洀瀀漀爀琀愀渀琀 猀甀最最攀猀琀椀漀渀猀 愀猀 琀漀 琀栀攀 猀琀爀甀挀琀甀爀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 愀琀漀洀⸀ 䠀攀 搀椀猀挀漀瘀攀爀攀搀 愀 洀攀琀栀漀搀 昀漀爀 猀攀瀀愀爀愀琀椀渀最 搀椀昀昀攀爀攀渀琀 欀椀渀搀猀 漀昀 愀琀漀洀猀 愀渀搀 洀漀氀攀挀甀氀攀猀 戀礀 琀栀攀 甀猀攀 漀昀 瀀漀猀椀琀椀瘀攀 爀愀礀猀Ⰰ 愀渀 椀搀攀愀 搀攀瘀攀氀漀瀀攀搀 戀礀 䄀猀琀漀渀Ⰰ 䐀攀洀瀀猀琀攀爀 愀渀搀 漀琀栀攀爀猀 琀漀眀愀爀搀猀 琀栀攀 搀椀猀挀漀瘀攀爀礀 漀昀 洀愀渀礀 椀猀漀琀漀瀀攀猀⸀ 䤀渀 愀搀搀椀琀椀漀渀 琀漀 琀栀漀猀攀 樀甀猀琀 洀攀渀琀椀漀渀攀搀Ⰰ 栀攀 眀爀漀琀攀 琀栀攀 戀漀漀欀猀Ⰰ 吀栀攀 匀琀爀甀挀琀甀爀攀 漀昀 䰀椀最栀琀 ⠀㤀 㜀⤀Ⰰ 吀栀攀 䌀漀爀瀀甀猀挀甀氀愀爀 吀栀攀漀爀礀 漀昀 䴀愀琀琀攀爀 ⠀㤀 㜀⤀Ⰰ 刀愀礀猀 漀昀 倀漀猀椀琀椀瘀攀 䔀氀攀挀琀爀椀挀椀琀礀 ⠀㤀㌀⤀Ⰰ 吀栀攀 䔀氀攀挀琀爀漀渀 椀渀 䌀栀攀洀椀猀琀爀礀 ⠀㤀㈀㌀⤀ 愀渀搀 栀椀猀 愀甀琀漀戀椀漀最爀愀瀀栀礀Ⰰ 刀攀挀漀氀氀攀挀琀椀漀渀猀 愀渀搀 刀攀昀氀攀挀琀椀漀渀猀 ⠀㤀㌀㘀⤀Ⰰ 愀洀漀渀最 洀愀渀礀 漀琀栀攀爀 瀀甀戀氀椀挀愀琀椀漀渀猀⸀ 吀栀漀洀猀漀渀Ⰰ 愀 爀攀挀椀瀀椀攀渀琀 漀昀 琀栀攀 伀爀搀攀爀 漀昀 䴀攀爀椀琀Ⰰ 眀愀猀 欀渀椀最栀琀攀搀 椀渀 㤀 㠀⸀ 䠀攀 眀愀猀 攀氀攀挀琀攀搀 䘀攀氀氀漀眀 漀昀 琀栀攀 刀漀礀愀氀 匀漀挀椀攀琀礀 椀渀 㠀㠀㐀 愀渀搀 眀愀猀 倀爀攀猀椀搀攀渀琀 搀甀爀椀渀最 㤀㘀ⴀ㤀㈀ 㬀 栀攀 爀攀挀攀椀瘀攀搀 琀栀攀 刀漀礀愀氀 愀渀搀 䠀甀最栀攀猀 䴀攀搀愀氀猀 椀渀 㠀㤀㐀 愀渀搀 㤀 ㈀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 䌀漀瀀氀攀礀 䴀攀搀愀氀 椀渀 㤀㐀⸀ 䠀攀 眀愀猀 愀眀愀爀搀攀搀 琀栀攀 䠀漀搀最欀椀渀猀 䴀攀搀愀氀 ⠀匀洀椀琀栀猀漀渀椀愀渀 䤀渀猀琀椀琀甀琀攀Ⰰ 圀愀猀栀椀渀最琀漀渀⤀ 椀渀 㤀 ㈀㬀 琀栀攀 䘀爀愀渀欀氀椀渀 䴀攀搀愀氀 愀渀搀 匀挀漀琀琀 䴀攀搀愀氀 ⠀倀栀椀氀愀搀攀氀瀀栀椀愀⤀Ⰰ 㤀㈀㌀㬀 琀栀攀 䴀愀猀挀愀爀琀 䴀攀搀愀氀 ⠀倀愀爀椀猀⤀Ⰰ 㤀㈀㜀㬀 琀栀攀 䐀愀氀琀漀渀 䴀攀搀愀氀 ⠀䴀愀渀挀栀攀猀琀攀爀⤀Ⰰ 㤀㌀㬀 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 䘀愀爀愀搀愀礀 䴀攀搀愀氀 ⠀䤀渀猀琀椀琀甀琀攀 漀昀 䌀椀瘀椀氀 䔀渀最椀渀攀攀爀猀⤀ 椀渀 㤀㌀㠀⸀ 䠀攀 眀愀猀 倀爀攀猀椀搀攀渀琀 漀昀 琀栀攀 䈀爀椀琀椀猀栀 䄀猀猀漀挀椀愀琀椀漀渀 椀渀 㤀 㤀 ⠀愀渀搀 漀昀 匀攀挀琀椀漀渀 䄀 椀渀 㠀㤀㘀 愀渀搀 㤀㌀⤀ 愀渀搀 栀攀 栀攀氀搀 栀漀渀漀爀愀爀礀 搀漀挀琀漀爀愀琀攀 搀攀最爀攀攀猀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀攀 唀渀椀瘀攀爀猀椀琀椀攀猀 漀昀 伀砀昀漀爀搀Ⰰ 䐀甀戀氀椀渀Ⰰ 䰀漀渀搀漀渀Ⰰ 嘀椀挀琀漀爀椀愀Ⰰ 䌀漀氀甀洀戀椀愀Ⰰ 䌀愀洀戀爀椀搀最攀Ⰰ 䐀甀爀栀愀洀Ⰰ 䈀椀爀洀椀渀最栀愀洀Ⰰ 䜀琀琀椀渀最攀渀Ⰰ 䰀攀攀搀猀Ⰰ 伀猀氀漀Ⰰ 匀漀爀戀漀渀渀攀Ⰰ 䔀搀椀渀戀甀爀最栀Ⰰ 刀攀愀搀椀渀最Ⰰ 倀爀椀渀挀攀琀漀渀Ⰰ 䜀氀愀猀最漀眀Ⰰ 䨀漀栀渀猀 䠀漀瀀欀椀渀猀Ⰰ 䄀戀攀爀搀攀攀渀Ⰰ 䄀琀栀攀渀猀Ⰰ 䌀爀愀挀漀眀 愀渀搀 倀栀椀氀愀搀攀氀瀀栀椀愀⸀ 㰀⼀栀㐀㸀㰀栀㐀㸀䤀渀 㠀㤀 Ⰰ 栀攀 洀愀爀爀椀攀搀 刀漀猀攀 䔀氀椀猀愀戀攀琀栀Ⰰ 搀愀甀最栀琀攀爀 漀昀 匀椀爀 䜀攀漀爀最攀 䔀⸀ 倀愀最攀琀Ⰰ 䬀⸀䌀⸀䈀⸀ 吀栀攀礀 栀愀搀 漀渀攀 猀漀渀Ⰰ 渀漀眀 匀椀爀 䜀攀漀爀最攀 倀愀最攀琀 吀栀漀洀猀漀渀Ⰰ 䔀洀攀爀椀琀甀猀 倀爀漀昀攀猀猀漀爀 漀昀 倀栀礀猀椀挀猀 愀琀 䰀漀渀搀漀渀 唀渀椀瘀攀爀猀椀琀礀Ⰰ 眀栀漀 眀愀猀 愀眀愀爀搀攀搀 琀栀攀 一漀戀攀氀 倀爀椀稀攀 昀漀爀 倀栀礀猀椀挀猀 椀渀 㤀㌀㜀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 漀渀攀 搀愀甀最栀琀攀爀 㰀⼀栀㐀㸀 sponsors link òþíèíã àâòî
òþíèíã ìàøèí